ACID AND BASES ACID BASE DEFINITION We want to start out with some definitions of acids and bases, specifically the Bronsted-Lowry definition. The Bronsted-Lowry acid is defined as a compound that donates a proton or a hydrogen ion to another compound (a base).

ATOMS, IONS, AND MOLECULES ELECTROMAGNETIC ENERGY: LIGHT AS WAVES Early in the 19 th century, physicists stated light as waves. There was no question that light behaved as waves and specifically electromagnetic waves. The term "electromagnetic" is from the fact that there are an electric component and a magnetic component in it.

ATOMS, IONS, AND MOLECULES Standing waves are waves that are not traveling. They play such an important role in understanding electrons. Standing waves remain constrained within some region of space. A vibrating string that is held fixed at its two end points is an example of a one-dimensional standing wave.

ATOMS, IONS, AND MOLECULES Particles and waves are very different phenomena in the macroscopic realm. By the 1920, it became increasingly clear that very small pieces of matter follow a different set of rules from those we observe for large objects. The unquestionable separation of waves and particles was no longer the case for the microscopic world.

ATOMS, IONS, AND MOLECULES When we are talking about orbitals, we need to talk about value and the letter designation for . For example, 2s or 3p. In the case of a hydrogen atom, energies of all the orbitals with the same are the same.

CHEMICAL REACTIONS PRECIPITATION REACTION Precipitation reaction is a reaction when ions in aqueous solution find each other and they form one or more solid products. It also sometimes known as double displacement, double replacement, metathesis reaction. Ions in the aqueus solution are coming around finding each other and they are essentially exchanging which pairs they are paired up with.

ELECTROCHEMISTRY Electrochemistry is the study of interconverting electrical energy and chemical energy. Chemical energy is essentially stored in molecules. We can use that to our advantage to cause electron transfer by something called oxidation or reduction.

GAS PRESSURE Before we talk deeply about gases, it is helpful to talk about gas pressure. Gas pressure is the force exerted by gas on a given area. Mercury barometer is a tool to measure atmospheric pressure. In the barometer, the gas molecules are pushing down on a bath of mercury which then forces mercury up a capillary tube.

Dalton's law applies to mixtures of gases if the gases don't react with each other. Dalton's law of partial pressure says that the pressure of a mixture of ideal gases is equal to the sum of the partial pressures of the component gases. Each gas is exerting its own fraction of the total pressure.

ATOMS, IONS, AND MOLECULES Ions have positive or negative charges. This is possible because there are either more electrons or fewer electrons than there are protons in that element. Ions are formed when the atom either gains or loses electrons. Cations are what we call a 'positively charged' ion.

ATOMS, IONS, AND MOLECULES Dimitry Mendeleev in Russia (1869) and Lothar Meyer in Germany (187) independently recognized that there was a periodic relationship among the properties of the elements known at that time. They created what is now known as the modern periodic table.

LIQUIDS, SOLIDS, AND GASES Solutions are homogenous mixtures made up of two or more substances. Solute is the substance being dissolved while solvent is the substance that is doing the dissolving. Solvent is typically present in the largest amount. Solutions can exist in all physical states.

LIQUIDS, SOLIDS, AND GASES We need to think about the partial pressure and how it is directly proportional to the solubility of the gas. This relationship is known as Henry's law. Henry's law is talking about the gas concentration, or gas solubility ( ) and the partial pressure of the gas.

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY Alkanes are hydrocarbons (molecule with hydrogen and oxygen) with single bonds (see the images). You can depict them with a condensed formula that really focuses on the carbon-carbon bonds. Each set of hydrogen's is essentially paired up with whatever carbon it's bonded to.

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY Hybridization is the combining of atomic orbitals to create hybrid orbitals that are used in bonding. Why do atoms have atomic orbitals that hybridize when they are forming bonds? The reason behind this all has to do with stability of the resulting molecule.

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY Stereochemistry is the study of the special characteristics of a molecule. There are two terms to know, chiral and achiral molecules. The mirror images of chiral molecules are non-superimposable. Chiral molecules are optically active/interact with polarized light. Achiral molecules, on the other hand, have mirror images that are superimposable.

STOICHIOMETRY This law says is that regardless of what is happening in a chemical reaction, the total mass is going to stay the same. In simple: matter is neither created nor destroyed. For example, if you start out a match, the match burns then you see it becomes smaller.

STOICHIOMETRY We use coefficients to show the relative numbers of the molecules or compounds that are on either side of a balanced chemical equation. We use that to make some quantitative relationships, or calculations, when we want to know what the actual amounts are, how much mass is there, what the volume of a solution is, etc., that have more practical applications.

THERMOCHEMISTRY AND ENERGY Chemical changes in many things we deal every day, such as eating food, metabolizing it, burning fuels, forming new raw materials, and others in terms of energy is thermochemistry. So thermochemistry is the study of the heat absorbed or released during chemical and physical changes.

THERMOCHEMISTRY AND ENERGY Chemists use a thermochemical equation to represent the changes in both matter and energy. In a thermochemical equation, the enthalpy change ( ) of a reaction is written to the right of the balanced equation. The example is this reaction: This is a combustion reaction of hydrogen.

CHEMICAL BONDING AND MOLECULAR GEOMETRY Covalent bonding happens with nonmetals because they tend to share electrons with each other. Electron sharing itself is the definition of covalent bonding. Consider the simplest molecule, hydrogen. A hydrogen atom has 1 proton and 1 electron (1s 1 ).

CHEMICAL BONDING AND MOLECULAR GEOMETRY Let's start by looking at the structure of molecules. Diatomic molecules are the easiest to figure out; their shapes are always going to be linear. However, once you get beyond two atoms, it starts getting more complicated and in some cases 3-dimensional.